Leson par (4)

The infinitive of verbs.  The infinitive expresses a state or an action without reference to persons or time.  It can be subject, object, or predicate of a verb, yet it can have a direct object.  It is modified by adverbs.  In Govores, the infinitive ends in "-a".  Mova - to speak;  beba - to drink;

Ni nu kerar panamoga vien (or:  panamoga-vo).  We don't wish to hinder you.
Ci vi kerar fade xaja?  Do you wish to answer at length?
Ima kanen esar ima kimen.  To have a dog is to have a friend.

The present tense ends in -ar: mi movar - I speak.
The past tense ends in -er;  mi mover- I spoke
The future tense ends in -or: li movor- He will speak
The conditional ends in -ir:  ni movir- we would speak
The purpose mode/imperative ends in -u: Movu!  Speak!;  Ni movu. - Let's speak.  Mi kerar, ke li movu - I wish that he would speak.

1.  The present tense is used for the "timeless" sense: mi movar ispane/ispanesen.  I speak Spanish.  This is also the form usually used to denote action that is ongoing at the time of speaking.  If particular emphasis is placed on the fact that the action of the verb is going at the time of speaking, one can use the present of esa (to be) with the present participle (see #2 below) or less commonly,  the imperfective suffix (see #5 below)

 

2.  The past participles of a verb end in -enti (active) and -eti (passive):  mova - to speak; moveti- spoken.  moventi - (having) spoken, as in Sa moventi covek idanar.  The person who spoke is coming.

The present participles end in -anti (active) and -ati (passive).  movanti- speaking.  movati - being spoken.

Future participles exist in Govores with the meaning of "about to X": movonti; "about to be spoken" movoti about to be spoken.

 

3.  The so-called "perfect tenses" can be formed in two ways.  The first way, which is used most often with transitive verbs and is more conversational, uses the auxiliary verb "ava" with the past participle.  Mi avar videti - I have seen.  Mi aver kometi - I had eaten.  Ti avor imeti  - you will have had.  Ni avir dumeti tuten- We would have thought that.

 

4.  The second method, the only method used with intransitive verbs, is to insert the perfective ending -ek- between the root and the tense ending. No auxiliary verb is used.  Mi videkar - I have seen.  Mi eseker - I had been.    Ti imekor - you will have had.  Ni dumekir - We would have thought.  This form is almost never used on transitive verbs in any but the most formal speech (oratory) or in formulaic phrases:  Kristo alsiveker!  Istine alsiveker!  Christ has risen!  Indeed, He has risen!  However, there are speakers who use this form on all verbs in conversation, both informal and formal.  In practice, the perfect tenses are not in usual use in conversation, the "regular" tenses with adverbs such as "jam" already, and "uske" up till now, being used instead:  Mi uske eser, I have been.  Mi jam komer, kutam li enider.  I had (already) eaten, when he came in.

 

 

5.  The suffix -ad can be added between the root and the suffixes -ar, -er, -or, and -u to create an imperfective aspect.  This is primarily used with the past tense to express an "imperfective" aspect, much like the Spanish imperfect, Russian imperfective past, or the Greek continuous past tense.  Without the -ad suffix, the past is equivalent to the Greek aorist; denoting the idea of completion of the action or else simple reporting of the action happening in the past, as in the Spanish preterit.

Used with the present, this suffix denotes the progressive tense.  The progressive sense can also be given to the verb with the future suffix.  Technically, the -ad should be added in the infinitive to denote action that is meant as continuous or repetitive (as in Russian or Greek) but only some speakers will do this.  It is never wrong to put in the infix for this continuous/repeated meaning.

 

Again, a conjugated verb (in a form ending in -ar, -er, -ir, or -or) with no subject pronoun is to be interpreted as a kind of "middle voice", i.e. where, in English we use a nebulous "they":  Kutel to zovar?  What is your name? (literally:  How do they call you?)  Mo zovar ______. My name is (literally, "they call me")  ______.   This is usually to be found only in set phrases.

Lini tigar xe sa dadik.  She lives with the grandfather.
Lui patik esar juni.  Her father is young.
Lui pato eser junis.  Her parents were young.
Ajuni dadin.  An old grandmother. Ajuni dado. Old grandparents.
Anu, ni kurer ja sa sidun.  Yes, we ran thru the parlor.
Kutu sidar su atutu sidil?  Who is sitting on this chair?
Ejdene zi pedider.  Yesterday, they walked.

1.  Kutu tigar xe ti?  Xe ni tigar mui tadik ku mui tadin.
2.  Kute esar tui patik kaj tui patin?  Mui pato esar xe mui velin, en lui hus.
3.  Ci mui velo zanecar en tui sidun?  Nu, her, tui velik kurar en sa kip kaj tui du velino nu esar xe mi.
4.  Ci tui patiko esar ajunis?  Anu, zi esar ajunis.
5.  Kutu sidar en sa sidun?  Mui patin esar atute ku juni herin kaj du ajuni hero.
6.  Ci ti zanecer ejdene ku tui velo?  Anu, mi kurer ja sa kip ku mui juni velik kaj zanecer en sa sidun ku mui ce velino.
7.  Ci tui tado zanecar ku xato?  Anu, en zui hus esar ce xato.
8.  Ci esar xato en tui hus?  Anu, esar du xato, kaj zi kurar ja sa domato, pedidar su sa tabo kaj sa sidilo.
9.  Ci esar fosilo isu tui tabo?  Nu, herin, mui fosilo nu esar en sa domato, kute kurar sa xato.
10.  Kutu tiger xe tui velik?  Xe mui velik tiger mui tado kaj sa her, kutu eser ku ti ejdene.
11.  Ci atutu her esar en mui domat?  Nu, li sidar en sa domat, kutu esar engus ta sidun.
12.  Kuto esar atute?  Atute esar unu tab kaj du sidilo, kutus esar abonis.
13.  Kutu tigar en tutu jandi hus?  Tute tigar sa hero, kutus eser ku ni ejdene.
14.  Ci tui tadin tigar xe ti?  Nu, li tigar xe mui dadik ku sa du ajuni herino, kutus sider engus ti en sa sidun.
15.  Kutu sider su sa sidil engus ta tui?  Tute sider juni her, kutu tigar ku mui velik xe nui dadik.
16.  Ci tui velik sidar engus ti xe sa tab?  Nu, xe sa tab mui velik sidar engus mui juni velin.

 

Leson ce (3)

Plural
The plural is formed for nouns by adding -o for the nominative plural (the subject or predicate noun plural) and for adjectives by adding -s:  Sa xenis xato.  The beautiful cats.  Sa hoxis tabo.
If the adjective is directly before the noun it modifies, the ending is mostly left off in colloquial speech:  Sa xeni xato.  The beautiful cats.  (this is perhaps preferable since -s x- can be difficult to pronounce).

 

The genitive plural changes the -ui of the singular to -ele, with the stress remaining on the root.

Sa xeni domat - the beautiful room
Sa xeni(s) domato - the beautiful rooms
Esar boni fosil- there is a good lamp

Esar aboni fosilo. There are bad lamps.
ajandi(s) tabo small tables
Kuto?  What?
atuto - this
su/isu - on (usually "su" but "isu" when following a word ending in "s, "z", or "x")

1 - unu;  2 - du;  3 - ce.

1.  Kute esar tui domat?  Mui domat esar en sa hus mui tadikui.
2.  Ci sa domat tui velikui esar atute?  Anu, sa du domat esar atute.
3.  Kute esar tui velino?  Du velino esar en mui hus kaj unu zanecar ku sa xato mui tadinui.
4.  Kute esar sa ce heriko?  Zi esar en sa xeni domato mui jandi husui.
5.  Kuto esar su sa tab?  Su sa tab esar ce fosilo*
6.  Ci zi esar boni fosilo?  Unu esar boni fosil kaj du esar aboni fosilo.
7.  Ci tui fosil esar jandi?  Anu, her, mui fosil esar jandi.
8.  Ci sa fosilo esar su tui tab?  Nu, her, sa fosil esar su sa jandi tab en tui domat.
9.  Ci tui domato esar en sa hus tui tadikui?  Nu, hero, mui domato esar en sa hus mui velikui.
10.  Kute esar sa xato?  Unu esar atute su tui tab kaj du esar en mui domat.
11.  Ci sa xato esar su sa tab ku mui fosil?  Nu, mui velik, sa xato nu esar atute, kute esar fosil.
12.  Kuto esar en tui domat?  En mui domat esar du ajandi tabo.
13.  Ci atut esar tui kip?  Nu, mui kip nu esar atute; atut esar sa kip mui velikui kaj sa hus mui velinui.
14.  Ci atuto esar sa hus tui tadikui?  Nu, her, atuto esar mui hus; lui hus esar engus tui kip.
15.  Kuto esar atute, her?  Atute esar jandi tab.
16.  Ci tui velik zanecar en sa hus?  Nu, li nu zanecar atute, li esar en sa kip ku mui xato. 

 

**  Please note that native speakers of Slavic languages will sometimes use the genitive singular after the numbers 2, 3, and 4, and the genitive plural after higher numbers (except those compound numbers ending in 2, 3, or 4, which will take the singular:  22 fosilUI, 27 fosilele)  This is an alternative form not to be emulated;  the form with the nominative plural is more used.

 

Leson du (2)

Grammar

Adjectives always end in -i:  boni - good; xeni - beautiful;  Sa jandi xat - The big cat.


Adverbs modify adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs.  Most Govores adverbs have the ending -e and are derived from the same roots as may adjectives and some other words.  (The root of a word is the part which tells its essential meaning and receives the grammatical ending to make it a word.)

Examples of such derived adverbs are xire - strongly, "with strength"; bone- well; kime- in a friendly way; abone- badly.

Govores also has a number of primary adverbs which have various endings.  Many of these have counterparts (probably quite old) in European languages basic to Govores.  Examples are Ejden(e) - yesterday.  ajden(e) - today, nu - no, not;   nun - now.

Subject pronouns and possessive adjectives


The following are the personal subject pronouns with their meanings.

mi - I
ti - you (singular)
li - he, she, it
ni - we
vi - you (plural)
zi - they
ici - one
ki - it


Myself, yourself, etc. add -mi to the pronoun.  Mi - I,  mimi - myself.  Note:  kimi and nimi are usually followed by "mem" due to the existence of a homonym.
Si is the reflexive pronoun for the third person and means himself, herself, itself, themselves. 
Li movar a si - He speaks to himself.  Zi eser lubeti de si - they were loved by themselves.

 

If one is speaking to a single person, one MUST use "ti."  There is no nuance of intimacy as in other languages.  "Vi" conversely has no connotation of deference or politeness; it is simply the plural you and cannot be used to one person.

Sentences with an object pronoun but no subject pronoun, can be interpreted as a quasi-passive or middle voice:  Kutel to zovar?  What is your name? (lit: "How does one call you?")  Mo zovar ____.  My name is ____.  (lit: "one calls me _____"). This is mostly restricted to so-called "stock phrases".  Note, these are NOT idioms.  They do make sense translated literally.  They are just particular to Govores.  As with the above, a speaker can use the literal translation:  Kuto esar tui nam?  What is your name?  Mui nam esar ________.  My name is _______.

 

Possessive adjectives (stress is on the "u")

mui - my, mine, of mine
tui - your, yours, of yours
lui - his, her, its; his, hers, its; of his, of hers, of its
nui - our, ours, of ours
vui - your, yours, of yours
zui - their, theirs, of theirs
kui - its
icui - one's

Sui - his own, her own, its own, their own, is used with a complement belonging to the subject of the sentence/clause.  Mui patik pedidar ku sui kim kaj lui josik.  My father walks with his (own) friend and his (the friend's) son.

 

The genitive of nouns is mainly used to show possession.  The genitive singular form of the noun takes the same ending as the possessive adjectives:  -ui (also stressed on the -U-:  sa tadikui xat . A rarely used word order for "my uncle's cat" (mainly as a literary device) is "mui tadikui xat"  Note, that the use of the genitive is optional and very rare in the colloquial form of the language:  one can always say "sa xat de sa(/mui) tadik" or "sa xat de tadik"

Ci tui hus esar jandi?  Is your house large?
Sa herik kaj sa herin.  The gentleman and the lady.
Zi zanecar en mui kip.  They are playing in my garden.
Sa tadikui xat. The uncle's cat 

Mi nu esar engus lui hus.  I am not near his house.

1.  Ci tui kip esar jandi?  Anu, mui kip esar jandi.
2.  Kute esar sa hus tui velikui?  Sa hus mui velikui esar engus mui kip.
3.  Ci tui velik esar ku ti?  Nu, li esar ku mui velin.
4.  Ci tui tadik kaj tui tadin esar atute?  Nu, zi nu esar atute.
5.  Kute zi esar?  Zi esar en tui hus.
6.  Kute esar tui kip?  Mui kip esar engus tui hus.
7.  Ci ti zanecar ku sa xat tui tadikui?  Nu, mi nu zanecar ku lui xat, mi zanecar ku mui xat.
8.  Kute esar tui velin?  Mui velin esar ku mui tadik en tui kip.
9.  Ci tui velik esar ku sa tadin?  Nu, li esar ku sa herik kaj sa herin en mui hus.
10.  Kute esar tui hus?  Mui hus esar en sa jandi kip de mui tadik.
11.  Kute esar sa kip tui tadikui?  Lui kip esar engus ta jandi hus de tui velik.
12.  Ci li esar tui velik?  Anu, li esar mui velik kaj sa her esar mui tadik.
13.  Kute zanecar tui velik?   Mui velik zanecar atute en mui kip.
14.  Ci li zanecar ku ti?  Nu, li nu zanecar ku mi; li zanecar ku mui tadin.
15.  Kute esar tui xat?  Mui xat esar ku sa xatin mui tadikui.
16.  Kute esar sa herik?  Li esar ku mui velik en sa kip mui tadikui.
17.  Kute ti zanecar ku tui xatin?  Mi zanecar en mui jandi kip.
18.  Ci tui xatin esar jandi?  Nu, mui xatin nu esar jandi.
19.  Ci ti nu zanecar ku tui xat?  Anu, mi zanecar ku mui jandi xat.
20.  Ci tui tadik kaj tui velik esar atute?  Nu, hero, zi nu esar atute, zi esar en mui kip.
21.  Kute esar tui tadin kaj sa herik?  Li esar en tui hus.
22.  Kute esar tui velik?  Li esar ku zi en sa jandi hus engus tui kip.
23.  Kute esar sa her?  Li esar en sa kip, kute mui velin zanecar ku lui xat.
24.  Ci sa kip esar engus ta hus, kute esar tui tadik?  Nu, lui kip esar engus mui hus.

Leson unu (1)

Kajxo a xutus kaj bonidan!  (KYE-show ah SHOE-toose kye bone-ee-DAHN) Hello to all, and welcome!

Govores is a new language project, designed specifically to address certain problems of other constructed, so-called "international languages" a few of which are:

1.      The "clinical regularity" of most other projects.

2.      The preponderence of Romance root words in the basic vocabulary seen in other languages.

3.      Unnecessarily difficult phonotactics (overly complex consonant clusters, basically)

4.      Slavish imitation of many languages using plural you for "polite" discourse and singular you for "familiar" or else English and Esperanto for using one word for both singular and plural

5.      Alleged sexism.

One intended use of Govores is as the official or bridge language for the European Union.  Not that that august body's government will ever approve such a proposal (it poo-poo's Esperanto, after all), but a language that will give a not-so-Romance option to Europe's non-Romance-speaking population who (rightly) berate Esperanto for being "A romance language with a germano-slavic accent".

Govores is unapologetically Indo-European in character and vocabulary (in other words, a so-called "Euroclone" in that it strongly resembles  "Standard Average European" in nature), that is, most of its features are found in one or more Indo-European languages, mainly Romance, Germanic, or Slavic,  although there are elements from other Indo-European languages (e.g. the verb aspects are more like the Greek system than the Slavic system) as well as non-Indo-European languages, and a priori elements that have been incorporated into it. 

For the purposes of this blog, I will be shamelessly imitating the format of Edmond Privat's "Esperanto in 50 Lessons".  Esperantists who read this blog will also note that I have shamelessly borrowed a few of Dr. Zamenhof's very good ideas e.g.  the correlative words (although I did make some tweaks for the Govores version) and his participle system, although in Govores, participles are ONLY adjectival or adverbial (none of the -anto, -into, or -onto complications, or worse yet, the "-intus" monstrosity).

The vowels of Govores are the usual 5 vowel set common to many languages: a, e, i, o, u.   These are given the usual pronunciation found in Spanish, Italian, Swahili, Hebrew, etc.  Of particular note to speakers of Italian, French, and other languages, the "e" and "o" can be pronounced either close or open.  The two pronunciations are mere allophones of the one phoneme. 

The consonants are as follows:

B, D, F, K, L, M, N, P, T, V, W, and Z are basically as in English beet, dill, fennel, skate, lens, mango, nut, spot, stop, vanilla, wow (both times; see below), and zucchini.

C as the CH in church

G as in go

H silent at the end of a word.  This use is mainly after "a", "e", and "o" to shift the stress of the word to the last vowel.  It is pronounced as English "h" -

J as in German "ja", see below.  Before "i", it usually gets pronounced somewhere between English "zh" and "j".  
Q is like the "ch" in the Scottish pronunciation of "loch"

R is trilled either with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge or the back of the tongue against the uvula (or more precisely, the uvula is vibrated against the back of the tongue).

S as in see
X as the "sh" in "shore".  

"J" is used immediately after the vowels "a" and "o" to create the sound combinations that in other languages are termed "diphthongs", just a fancy word for two vowels, one strong and one weak, pronounced as one syllable. "aj" is pronounced as the English word "eye" and "oj" is pronounced as the "oy" in "boy."  The J is also used after "i" to shift the stress of the word to the last vowel.

"J" before "a", "e", "o", "u" is equivalent to the English "Y"; "ja" sounds like the "-ia" (with the proper "a" sound) in "Alleluia", etc.  Technically and in careful speech, this is the same sound before "i", however, in less careful speech, it is pronounced with marked friction to the point where it is pronounced more like the French "j."  Some speakers will even pronounce this as the English "j"

"W" is used after "a" for the diphthong found in "ouch" and before "a", "e", and "i" as in the English words, water, west and week.  It is used after "u" to shift stress.

"K", "P", and "T" are unaspirated stops;  i.e there is no puff of breath accompanying their pronunciation as it does in "kate", "pot" and "top."  To achieve this, English speakers should think of the 'k' 'p' and 't' in "skate", "spot" and "stop"

Voiced consonants at the end of a phrase or before another voiceless consonant, MAY be pronounced as their unvoiced counterparts, usually by speakers that devoice consonants at the end of a word (Germanic, Slavic). This will create homonyms.  In this case "tob" and "top" will sound the same in these forms.  However, within a breath group/phrase, a voiced consonant at the end of a word is usually pronounced voiced if it is followed by a word beginning with a vowel or another voiced consonant (including J and W).

It will be seen on perusal of the vocabulary that consonant clusters are mostly restricted to two consonants within words, which will always consist of a continuant, predominantly "s", "n", or "m" followed by a stop, creating "mp", "nk", "nt", "mb", "nk", "nt", "sk", "sp", and "st."  At the beginning of a word, the second consonant is always one of the semivowels, W or J.  

Finally, stress in the base form (the form found in dictionaries) of words is on the vowel before the last consonant of the word.  
In words beginning with a consonant followed by vowels only, the stress is on the second to last vowel: liu = LEE-oo.  Lui = LOO-ee.  
Stress in genitive singular is on the ending:  tab: tabUi, and in the plural is on the root tAbele.  In the accusative singular, it does not shift, and in the plural will shift to the -i:  tab:  tAben, tabIen. In all other cases, the stress will shift to the final pre-consonant vowel when a suffix is added.

Grammar overview

Words of more than one syllable are "grammar coded" to an extent.  Verb infinitives end in -a, adjectives end in -i, and nouns end in a consonant.  Adverbs end in either -e or else a consonant.  Prepositions, interjections, and conjunctions usually take one of three forms:  vowel +consonant, consonant + vowel, or vowel + consonant + vowel.  Numbers are considered adjectives, not a separate part of speech; however, they have the same structure as nouns (CvC) or other parts of speech (Cv, and vCv).  The series of words termed "correlatives" are adjectives, adverbs, and demonstrative pronouns, but do not follow the above schematic. 

Nouns

Base nouns (those nouns not derived from another part of speech) in Govores end in a consonant as in den, day; ifan, child; covek, person; or in an -o after a consonant cluster as in tavlo, table (arch.  now tab). Most of these latter nouns are nowadays archaic. The few that are not archaic are always derived from verbs and adjectives.  

Nouns derive from other parts of speech by dropping the ending vowel of a verb or adjective ( if this results in a consonant cluster at the end of the word, a duplicate of the root vowel separates the two consonants). Hence:  Govra (arch) - to speak; govro (arch) - speech, language.  Boni - good; bon - the good.  

There is no grammatical gender in Govores.  Even the third person subject pronoun is gender neutral, although should the need arise, a speaker can differentiate between "he" and "she" (usually "lici" for "he" and "lini" for "she").

There is only one article in Govores:  sa (turns to 'ta" after a word ending in an "s") - the.  This does not change for number or case.  The change in the article from s- to t- will be observed any time two S's come together during morphological processes, unless, of course, this creates a cluster of more than two consonants (in the same word), in which case the second "s" simply drops out.

"Ci"

The particle ci is used to create yes/no questions from statements by simply placing it before the sentence. 

It is also used to create "tag questions": Ti esar ispan, ci nu?  You are a Spaniard, aren't you? Ti nu movar dojces, ci?  You don't speak German, right?

Vocabulary  (Note that in the first 4 lessons of each 5-lesson group, only the new words in the sentences in bold print are to be memorized as active vocabulary.  Of course, the student can memorize the new words in the grammar explanations if s/he wishes, but it is not required; don't worry though; they'll be introduced as active vocabulary eventually.  In the 5th lesson of each 5-lesson group, all new words given are to be memorized.)

Kute esar sa velik?  Where is the brother?
En sa hus ku sa velin.   In the house with the sister.
Ci li esar tute?  Is he there?
Ci ti esar?    Are you?
Ci mi esar?   Am I?
Nanu   Yes (a more colloquial form is Anu)
Nu      No.

1.  Kute esar sa velik?  Li esar en sa hus.
2.  Kute esar sa velin?  Sa velin esar en sa hus.
3.  Kute esar sa hus?  Sa hus esar atute.
4.  Ci sa hus esar atute?  Nanu, sa hus esar atute.
5.  Ci sa velik esar en sa hus?  Nanu, sa velik esar en sa hus.
6.  Ci li esar atute?  Nanu, li esar atute.
7.  Ci li esar ku sa velin?  Nanu, sa velik esar ku sa velin en sa hus.
8.  Ci sa velik esar ku ti?  Nu, li esar ku sa velin.
9.  Ci li esar atute?  Nu, li esar en sa hus.
10. Ci sa velin esar en sa hus?  Nanu, sa velin esar en sa hus ku mi.
11. Ci ti esar ku mi?  Nu, mi esar ku sa velik.
12. Ci mi esar ku sa velin?  Nu, ti esar ku mi.
13. Kute ti esar?  Mi esar atute ku li.
14.  Ci sa velin esar ku sa velik?  Nanu, sa velin esar ku li.
15. Kute ti esar?  Mi esar atute ku li.
16. Kute esar sa velin?  Sa velin esar atute, kute sa veik esar.
17. Kute ti esar?  Mi esar atute ku sa velik.
18. Kute li esar?  Li esar en sa hus, kute mi esar.
19. Kute esar sa velik?  Sa velik esar atute, kute ti esar.
20.  Ci sa velin esar ku li?  Nanu, kute esar sa velik, tute esar sa velin.